バガン

Bagan — Grokipedia Fact-checked by Grok 3 months ago Bagan Ara Eve Leo Sal 1x Bagan is an ancient city situated on a bend of the Ayeyarwady River in Myanmar's central dry zone, serving as the capital of the Pagan Kingdom from the 9th to the 13th centuries CE and representing the political, economic, and religious heart of early Burmese civilization. [1] During its peak from the 11th to 13th centuries, the kingdom's rulers and elites sponsored the construction of thousands of Buddhist monuments across a vast plain spanning roughly 40 square kilometers, reflecting intense Theravada Buddhist devotion through merit-making practices that intertwined royal authority with religious patronage. [1] [2] Of these, 3,595 stupas, temples, monasteries, and related structures have been recorded as surviving, featuring brick architecture, terracotta plaques, frescoes, and inscriptions that testify to evolving artistic and doctrinal traditions. [1] The site's monumental scale emerged under kings like Anawrahta (r. 1044–1077), who unified the region and promoted Theravada orthodoxy, initiating large-scale temple building that continued through subsequent reigns, fostering a landscape of pilgrimage and cultural continuity. [3] Bagan's archaeological ensemble, inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2019 under criteria (iii), (iv), and (vi), exemplifies a living sacred landscape where ancient structures coexist with ongoing rituals, though earthquakes in 1975 and 2016 caused significant damage, prompting debates over restoration authenticity and conservation methods that delayed its listing. [1] This concentration of Buddhist architecture rivals other Southeast Asian centers like Angkor , underscoring Bagan's role in disseminating Theravada practices across the region via trade and conquest. [2] Nomenclature Etymology The name Bagan represents the modern standard Burmese pronunciation of the historical term Pugan (ပုဂံ), which traces its origins to Old Burmese Pukam (ပုကမ်), as evidenced by linguistic analysis of early Burmese inscriptions and chronicles. [4] [5] This evolution reflects phonetic shifts in the Burmese language over centuries, with Pukam denoting the core settlement established as the capital of the Pagan Kingdom around the 9th century CE. [6] In classical Pali , the primary liturgical language of the era, the city was designated Arimaddanapura (အရိမဒ္ဓနာပူရ), literally translating to "City that Tramples on Enemies" or "City of the Enemy-Trampler," a name underscoring its strategic and military significance during the kingdom's expansion. [7] This Pali form appears in royal inscriptions and Theravada Buddhist texts from the 11th–13th centuries, highlighting the rulers' self-conception as conquerors unifying the Irrawaddy Valley. [8] One proposed etymological link connects Pukam to Pyu-kam or Pyugam , interpreted as "Pyu village" or "Pyu city," alluding to the site's pre-Burman foundations among the Pyu people, an earlier Monic-speaking civilization in the region predating Burmese dominance by centuries. [6] Archaeological evidence of Pyu-style artifacts at Bagan supports cultural continuity, though this derivation remains interpretive rather than definitively attested in primary sources. [9] The shift from colonial-era romanization "Pagan" to "Bagan" in 1989 aligned with Myanmar's policy of restoring indigenous nomenclature, emphasizing pre-colonial phonetic accuracy over European transliterations. [7] Historical Designations In classical Pali literature and inscriptions, Bagan was designated as Arimaddanapura , translating to "the City that Tramples on Enemies," a name emphasizing its strategic and martial significance as the seat of power. [10] [11] This appellation appears in early Burmese epigraphy and chronicles, linking the city to Theravada Buddhist cosmology and royal patronage from the 9th century onward. [12] The Old Burmese vernacular name was Pukam (or variants like Pugiima), reflecting its origins as a settlement possibly tied to earlier Pyu influences in the region, with the term evolving into the modern Burmese Bagan by phonetic shift. [10] Historical Burmese texts, such as royal inscriptions from the 11th–13th centuries, consistently used this form to denote the capital of the emerging Mranma (Burman) polity, distinguishing it from peripheral Mon and Pyu city-states . [12] Alternative Pali designations included Tambadipa ("Land of Copper"), alluding to the arid, copper-toned plains, and Tassadessa ("Parched Land"), highlighting the region's dry topography and environmental challenges that shaped its urban development. [13] These names underscore Bagan's portrayal in Southeast Asian Buddhist narratives as a fortified hub amid ecological constraints, predating its 13th-century decline. In European accounts from the 19th century , the city was anglicized as Pagan , a transliteration retained in colonial-era mappings and persisting in some scholarly contexts until the late 20th century . [8] Geography Location and Topography Bagan is situated in the Mandalay Region of central Myanmar , on the eastern bank of the Ayeyarwady River at coordinates approximately 21°10′N 94°52′E. [14] The site occupies a strategic position on a bend in the river, within the central dry zone of the country, roughly 145 kilometers southwest of Mandalay and about 700 kilometers north of Yangon . [1] [15] The topography of Bagan consists of flat alluvial plains formed by the Ayeyarwady River, with an average elevation of around 70 to 140 meters above sea level , providing a level expanse ideal for monumental construction. [16] [17] This low-relief landscape, part of Myanmar's broader central basin, features minimal variation in terrain across the approximately 42 square kilometers of the archaeological zone, dominated by sandy soils and sparse vegetation characteristic of the dry zone. [1] [18] The surrounding region transitions gradually to low hills farther east, but the core area remains a vast, open plain that has preserved the visibility and density of ancient structures. [19] Climate and Seismic Activity Bagan experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh), characterized by high temperatures year-round and a pronounced dry season , with annual precipitation averaging approximately 974 mm concentrated in the summer monsoon period. [20] Mean annual temperatures hover around 26.4 °C, with extremes reaching highs of over 40 °C in April and lows dipping to about 15 °C in December and January . [20] The dry season spans from November to April , featuring minimal rainfall (under 10 mm monthly) and clear skies conducive to tourism , while the wet season from May to October brings heavy downpours, peaking at 208 mm in September over about 16 rainy days. This arid central dry zone receives 600–900 mm of rain annually, significantly less than coastal or delta regions, due to sheltering from the southwest monsoon by surrounding topography . [21] The region lies in a seismically active zone near the Sagaing Fault, a major strike-slip boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates, resulting in frequent earthquakes that have repeatedly damaged Bagan's ancient structures. [22] Historical records document over 400 earthquakes impacting the area between 1904 and 1975 alone, with the most destructive event being the magnitude 6.8 quake on July 8, 1975, which demolished numerous stupas and temples in Bagan and nearby towns like Nyaung-U. [23] Subsequent major events include the August 24, 2016, magnitude 6.8 earthquake, which inflicted severe damage on over 170 pagodas, including collapses at Sulamani Temple, and the March 28, 2025, magnitude 7.7 quake centered near Mandalay , which caused widespread structural failures across Bagan's monuments amid ruptures along the Sagaing Fault exceeding 500 km. [24] [25] [26] Probabilistic seismic hazard assessments indicate peak ground accelerations of 0.25–0.36 g for a 475-year return period , underscoring the ongoing vulnerability of the site's brick masonry temples to such tectonic forces. [22] Restoration efforts following these quakes have often employed modern reinforcements, though debates persist over preserving original forms versus seismic resilience. [27] History Pre-Bagan Foundations The Bagan plain, situated in the dry zone of the Ayeyarwady ( Irrawaddy) River basin, formed part of the cultural and urban landscape developed by the Pyu city-states , which flourished from approximately the 2nd century BCE to the 9th century CE. [28] These Tibeto-Burman-speaking peoples established walled urban centers across central Myanmar , introducing irrigated agriculture, advanced water management including dams and canals, and early Buddhist practices that blended Theravada and Mahayana elements. [28] Archaeological evidence from Pyu sites reveals terracotta plaques, brick stupas, and inscriptions in Pali and Pyu script , reflecting Indian cultural influences transmitted via trade routes. [29] Pyu urbanization emphasized extended city formats with ritual centers, monasteries, and fortifications, laying foundational models for later Southeast Asian statecraft and architecture that extended to the Bagan region. [28] By the 7th century CE, settlements in the upper Irrawaddy valley, including precursors to Bagan, integrated into the Pyu realm, featuring early brick structures and Buddhist iconography. [29] The Pyu's economic base relied on wet-rice cultivation supported by hydraulic engineering , fostering surplus production that sustained religious patronage and urban growth. [28] From the 8th century onward, repeated invasions by the Nanzhao kingdom from present-day Yunnan eroded Pyu dominance, prompting migrations and cultural assimilation . [29] Concurrently, Bamar (Mranma) groups, originating from the same northern regions, entered the valley, adopting Pyu Buddhist traditions, linguistic elements, and building techniques while establishing footholds in former Pyu territories. [29] This transit